Book of Revelation

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The Book of the Revelation to John, often referred to as the Book of Revelation or simply Revelation, is the last in the collection of documents which constitute the New Testament (the second of the two major divisions of the Bible). It is also known as the Apocalypse of John or simply the Apocalypse. These titles come from Koine Greek apokalupsis, meaning "revelation", which is the first word of the book. The word "apocalypse" is also used for other works of a similar nature, and the genre is known as apocalyptic literature. Such literature is "marked by distinctive literary features, particularly prediction of future events and accounts of visionary experiences or journeys to heaven, often involving vivid symbolism."^[1] The Book of Revelation is the only apocalyptic document in the New Testament canon, though there are short apocalyptic passages in various places in the gospels and the epistles.^[2]

Revelation brings together the worlds of heaven, earth, and hell in a final confrontation between the forces of good and evil. Its characters and images are both real and symbolic, spiritual and material, and it is frequently difficult to know which is which. Revelation's cryptic nature has ensured that it would always be a source of controversy. Nevertheless, it has not only endured, but captured the imagination of generations of Bible students, both professionals and laypeople alike.

The author, named John, has traditionally been identified with John the Apostle, to whom the Gospel of John is also attributed. According to the Zondervan Pictorial Encyclopedia of the Bible, modern scholars are divided between the apostolic view and several alternative hypotheses which have been put forth in the last hundred years or so.^[3] Historical-critical scholars, in particular, conclude that the author did not also write the Gospel of John.^[4][5] Most scholars think that Revelation was written near the end of the 1st century.^[6]

While Revelation's larger themes are abundantly clear, its details provide a considerable challenge for interpreters. Most of the interpretations fall into one or more of the following categories: the Historicist, which sees in Revelation a broad view of history; the Preterist, in which Revelation mostly refers to the events of the apostolic era (first century); the Futurist, which believes that Revelation describes future events; and the Idealist, or Symbolic, which holds that Revelation does not refer to actual people or events, but is an allegory of the spiritual path and the ongoing struggle between good and evil. These approaches are by no means mutually exclusive, and are often used in combination with each other to form a more complete and coherent interpretation.

Contents 1 Composition 1.1 Title 1.2 Authorship 1.2.1 Traditional view 1.2.2 Early views 1.2.3 Modern views 1.3 Canonical history 1.4 Dating 2 Literary elements 2.1 Structure 2.1.1 Introduction 2.2 Plot 2.3 Characters 2.3.1 Lamb of God 2.3.2 Dragon 2.3.3 Archangel Michael 2.3.4 Beast and False Prophet 2.3.5 Whore of Babylon 2.3.6 Four Horsemen 2.3.7 Other characters 3 Outline 4 Interpretations 4.1 Religious views 4.1.1 Futurist view 4.1.2 Historicist view 4.1.3 Preterist view 4.1.4 Eastern Orthodox view 4.1.5 Paschal liturgical view 4.1.6 Esoteric view 4.1.7 Radical discipleship view 4.1.8 Paschal spiritual view 4.2 Aesthetic and literary views 4.3 Academic views 4.4 Criticism 5 Old Testament origins 6 See also 7 Notes 8 References 9 External links

Composition

This section will discuss Revelation's history, authorship, and some of the controversies surrounding it.

Title

The last document of the New Testament is commonly known today as the Book of Revelation, or simply, Revelation. The title found on some of the earliest manuscripts is "The Revelation of John" (Ἀποκάλυψις Ἰωάννου), and the most common title found on later manuscripts is "The Revelation of the Theologian" (Ἀποκάλυψις τοῦ Θεολόγου.) From this latter noun comes the title in the Authorized King James Version, the Revelation of Saint John the Divine, divine being a seventeenth century word for theologian.^[7]

The Greek word, ἀποκάλυψις (apokalypsis), sometimes rendered directly from the Greek as apocalypse, is usually translated in English as revelation, since the literal meaning of the Greek word is "the act of revealing or unveiling".^[8] Some later manuscripts add Evangelist or Apostle to the title.^[9] The opening words are: "The revelation (Ἀποκάλυψις) of Jesus Christ". The title, therefore, is also the first word of the book.( The bible)

Authorship

The author of Revelation identifies himself several times as "John".^[10] The author also states that he was on Patmos when he received his first vision.^[11] As a result, the author of Revelation is sometimes referred to as John of Patmos.

Traditional view

The traditional view holds that John the Apostle—considered to have written the Gospel and the epistles of John—was exiled on Patmos in the Aegean archipelago during the reign of Domitian, and there wrote Revelation. Those in favour of apostolic authorship point to the testimony of the early church fathers (see "Early Views" below) and similarities between the Gospel of John and Revelation. For example, both works are soteriological and possess a high Christology, stressing Jesus' divine side as opposed to the human side stressed by the Synoptic Gospels. In the Gospel of John and in Revelation, Jesus is referred to as "the Word of God" (Ὁ λόγος τοῦ Θεοῦ), although the context in Revelation is very different from John. The Word in Rev 19:13 is involved in judgement but in John 1:1, the image is used to speak of a role in creation and redemption.^[12]

Explanations of the differences between John's works by proponents of the single-author view include factoring in underlying motifs and purposes, authorial target audience, the author's collaboration with or utilization of different scribes and the advanced age of John the Apostle when he wrote Revelation. Charles Erdman (1866–1960) advocated apostolic authorship and wrote that only the Apostle John fits the image of the author derived from the text^[13]

Early views

Justin Martyr (c. 100-165 AD) who was acquainted with Polycarp, who had been mentored by John, makes a possible allusion to this book, and credits John as the source.^[14] Irenaeus (c. 115-202) assumes it as a conceded point. At the end of the second century, it is accepted at Antioch by Theophilus (died c. 183), and in Africa by Tertullian (c. 160-220). At the beginning of the third century, it is adopted by Clement of Alexandria and by Origen of Alexandria, later by Methodius, Cyprian, Lactantius, Dionysius of Alexandria,^[15] and in the fifth century by Quodvultdeus.^[16] Eusebius (ca. 263–339) was inclined to class the Apocalypse with the accepted books.^[17] Jerome (347-420) relegated it to second class.^[18] Most canons included it, but some, especially in the Eastern Church, rejected it. It is not included in the Peshitta (an early New Testament in Aramaic).^[9]

Modern views

More recent methods of scholarship, such as textual criticism, have been influential in suggesting that John the Apostle, John the Evangelist and John of Patmos were three separate individuals. Differences in style, theological content, and familiarity with Greek between the Gospel of John, the epistles of John, and the Revelation are seen by some scholars as indicating three separate authors.^[19] Some, but not all, Mormon scholarship supports multiple Johns.^[20]

The English Biblical scholar, Robert Henry Charles (1855–1931), reasoned on internal textual grounds that the book was edited by someone who spoke no Hebrew and who wished to promote a different theology to John's. As a result, everything after 20:3, he claims, has been left in a haphazard state with no attempt to structure it logically. Furthermore, he says, the story of the defeat of the ten kingdoms has been deleted and replaced by 19:9-10.^[21] John's theology of chastity has been replaced by the editor's theology of outright celibacy, which makes little sense when John's true church is symbolised as a bride of the Lamb. Most importantly, the editor has completely rewritten John's theology of the Millennium which is "emptied of all significance".^[22]

John Robinson in "Redating the New Testament" (1976) has heavily criticised Charles' position and accepted apostolic authorship, dating John's Gospel before the Siege of Jerusalem in 70 AD. He also argues that John's "poor" Greek is a literary device since Galileans were known to have excellent Greek.^[23] He says: "The Greek of the Apocalypse is not that of a beginner whose grammar and vocabulary might improve and mature into those of the evangelist. It is the pidgin Greek of someone who appears to know exactly what he is about [to say]".^[24]

It has also been contended that the core verses of the book, in general chapters 4 through 22, are surviving records of the prophecies of John the Baptist.^[25] In this view, the Lamb of God references and other hallmarks of Revelation are linked to what is known of John the Baptist, though it must be confessed that very little is known of him.

Canonical history

Revelation appears to be the last of the books accepted into the New Testament canon by the two synods held for the purpose of reaching universal agreement on which documents to include. Revelation's place in the canon was not guaranteed, with doubts raised as far back as the second century about its character, symbolism, and apostolic authorship.^[26] Second century Christians in Syria rejected it because Montanism, a sect which was deemed to be heretical by the mainstream church, relied heavily on it.^[27] In the fourth century, Gregory of Nazianzus and other bishops argued against including Revelation because of the difficulties of interpreting it and the risk of abuse. It was accepted into the canon at the Council of Carthage of 397 AD.^[28] In the sixteenth century, Martin Luther initially considered it to be "neither apostolic nor prophetic" and stated that "Christ is neither taught nor known in it",^[29] and placed it in his Antilegomena, i.e. his list of questionable documents. (He changed his mind about it later, however.) In the same century, John Calvin believed the book to be canonical, yet it was the only New Testament book on which he did not write a commentary.^[30] It remains the only book of the New Testament that is not read within the Divine Liturgy of the Eastern Orthodox Church, though it is included in Catholic and Protestant liturgies. According to Merrill Unger and Gary Larson, in spite of the objections that have been raised over the years, Revelation provides a logical conclusion, not just to the New Testament, but to the Bible as a whole, and there is a continuous tradition dating back to the second century which supports the authenticity of the document, and which indicates that it was generally included within the, as yet unformalized, canon of the early church.^[31]

Dating

According to early tradition, this book was composed near the end of Domitian's reign, around the year 95 AD. Others contend for an earlier date, 68 or 69 AD, in the reign of Nero or shortly thereafter.^[32] The majority of modern scholars accept one of these two dates, with most accepting the later one.^[6]

Those who favour the later date appeal to the earliest external testimony, that of the Christian father Irenaeus (c. 150-202),^[33] who wrote that he received his information from people who knew John personally. Domitian, according to Eusebius of Caesarea (c. 263–339), started the persecution referred to in the book. While some recent scholars have questioned the existence of a large-scale Domitian persecution,^[34] others believe that Domitian's insistence on being treated as a god may have been a source of friction between the Church and Rome.^[35]

The earlier date, first proposed in modern times by John Robinson in a closely argued chapter of "Redating the New Testament" (1976), relies on the book's internal evidence, given that no external testimony exists earlier than that of Irenaeus, noted above, and the earliest extant manuscript evidence of Revelation (P98) is likewise dated no earlier than the late second century. This early dating is centered around the preterist interpretation of chapter 17, where the seven heads of the "beast" are regarded as the succession of Roman emperors up to the time of the fall of Jerusalem in 70 AD.^[36]

John W. Marshall dates the book to 69 or early 70 AD, saying it predates any formal separation of Christianity and Judaism,^[37] and that it is a thoroughly Jewish text.^[38]

Some interpreters attempt to reconcile the two dates by placing the visions themselves at the earlier date (during the 60s) and the publication of Revelation under Domitian, who reigned in the 90s when Irenaeus says the book was written.^[39] At this point, however, there is insufficient evidence to either prove or disprove this hypothesis.

Literary elements

A number of literary elements can be identified in Revelation, such as structure, plot, major characters, and unifying themes.

Structure

In terms of structure, the book is built around four successive groups of seven: the messages to the seven churches, the seven seal judgments, the seven trumpet judgments, and finally, the seven bowl judgments. There are also introductory and concluding passages, and additional passages which are inserted between the main structural elements in various places throughout the book (see Outline, below).

The repeated occurrence of the number seven contributes to the overall unity of Revelation. While several numbers stand out—3, 4, 7, 10, 12, 24, 144, 1000—seven appears to have a special significance. There are seven churches symbolized by seven lampstands (1:20); the churches have seven angels symbolized by seven stars (1:20); there are seven spirits before the throne of God, symbolized by seven lamps (4:5), and also by seven horns and seven eyes (5:6); the judgment scroll has seven seals (5:1) with a corresponding set of seven "seal judgments"; the seventh seal unleashes seven "trumpet judgments," which are heralded by seven angels (8:1-2); the seventh trumpet unleashes seven "bowl judgments," where the bowls of God's wrath are poured out by seven angels (15:1); there are seven mysterious thunders about which John is not permitted to say anything (10:3); 7,000 people are killed in an earthquake (11:13); the dragon has seven heads and seven diadems on his heads (12:3); and the beast from the sea has seven heads (13:1).

One half of seven, 3½, is also a conspicuous number in Revelation: two witnesses are given power to prophesy 1,260 days, or exactly 3½ years, according to the Hebrew year of 360 days (11:3); the witnesses are then killed, and their dead bodies lie in the streets of Jerusalem for 3½ days (11:9); the "woman clothed with the sun" is protected in the wilderness

Introduction

The second and larger part of the introduction (verses 4-20) begins by identifying the addressees: “John, to the seven churches which are in Asia"^[1:4] ("Asia" was a Roman province in what is now western Turkey). It describes in greater detail the circumstances in which the prophecy was received: “I, John, both your brother and companion in tribulation... was on the island that is called Patmos for the word of God and for the testimony of Jesus Christ.”^[1:9] Adela Collins, a theologian at the University of Notre Dame, writes:

Early tradition says that John was banished to Patmos by the Roman authorities. This tradition is credible because banishment was a common punishment used during the Imperial period for a number of offenses. Among such offenses were the practices of magic and astrology. Prophecy was viewed by the Romans as belonging to the same category, whether Pagan, Jewish, or Christian. Prophecy with political implications, like that expressed by John in the book of Revelation, would have been perceived as a threat to Roman political power and order. Three of the islands in the Sporades were places where political offenders were banished (Pliny Natural History 4.69-70; Tacitus Annals 4.30).^[40]

John's exile to Patmos, together with the phrase, "your brother and companion in tribulation," implies a time of persecution. This is further indicated by the mention of a martyrdom in Pergamos^[2:13] and other passages in the messages to the churches.^{[cf. 2:3; 2:9-10]}

The introduction also describes the one from whom the prophecy was received:

I turned around to see the voice that was speaking to me. And when I turned I saw seven golden lampstands, and among the lampstands was someone like a son of man, dressed in a robe reaching down to his feet and with a golden sash around his chest. His head and hair were white like wool, as white as snow, and his eyes were like blazing fire. His feet were like bronze glowing in a furnace, and his voice was like the sound of rushing waters. In his right hand he held seven stars, and out of his mouth came a sharp double-edged sword. His face was like the sun shining in all its brilliance.^{[1:12-16 niv]}

This person identifies himself to John with these words: “I am he who lives, and was dead, and behold, I am alive forevermore. And I have the keys of Hades and of Death.”^[1:18] After reassuring John that he need not be afraid, he gives John his commission: “Write the things which you have seen, and the things which are, and the things which will take place after this.”^[1:19] In the New Bible Commentary, G.R. Beasley-Murray writes:

"What you have seen" is the vision just given; "what is now" relates to the existing state of the churches and the letters about to be given; "what will be hereafter" is the subsequent visions of the book. This should not be pressed to imply that everything without exception in chs. 4-22 refers to the time future to John, let alone to the time of the end of all things.^[41]

Plot

A plot, or general storyline, can be identified in Revelation. The story proper is in included in chapters 4-22, but chapters 1-3 lay the groundwork. These first three chapters consist of a brief introduction followed by seven separate messages conveyed by the author to seven churches. The larger themes of the book as a whole – judgment, salvation, the coming of the Messiah, etc. – are exposed in these messages, each of which is tailor-made for the church in question. Each message assesses how that particular church is doing, and tells it what change, if any, needs to be made. In a nutshell, the churches are each presented with a choice: to be faithful or not to be faithful. The potential consequences of their choices are graphically illustrated in the story proper, in ch. 4-22. The messages to the churches also serve as a device to convey a message to a wider audience, for each church's message ends with: "He who has an ear, let him hear what the Spirit says to the churches" (2:7, etc.).

The plot of the story proper (ch. 4-22) is driven by a powerful conflict between the forces, both earthly and spiritual, of good and evil. Expressed in the simplest terms (for a more detailed outline, see below), it is as follows: 1) there is a time of great tribulation on the Earth which combines natural disasters with war on an unprecedented scale; 2) the "Lamb" saves his people from the tribulation, destroys the wicked, and ushers in an age of peace; 3) after the age of peace, there is a second, brief time of trouble which results in the permanent banishment of the wicked; 4) A new heaven and a new earth replace the old, and the people of God go to live in the presence of God and Christ in a heavenly city described as the "new Jerusalem." (See Interpretations, below, for different understandings of these details. This section is only concerned with the text itself.)

Characters

Revelation has an array of colorful characters. Some of the characters appear to be actual persons (whether on the spiritual or the physical plane), while others appear to be purely symbolic.

Lamb of God

The protagonist, known throughout most of the book as the "Lamb," is a hero of magnificent proportions. This figure represents Jesus Christ, who is also identified as the Lamb of God in the Gospel of John.

Dragon

Almost as impressive as the Lamb is the antagonist, Satan, an archvillain known as the "dragon." In the end, the dragon, the Beast, and the False Prophet are thrown into a lake of fire to burn forever.

Archangel Michael

Archangel Michael defeats the dragon.

Beast and False Prophet

A beast with seven heads and ten horns is associated with the number 666. Another beast, looking like a lamb but speaking like a dragon, is identified as the False Prophet. He leads people to worship the first beast.

The Emperor Nero is commonly identified with the beast because his name equals 666 in Hebrew,^[42] if using the Greek spelling of Nero's name (Neron Caesar), but using the Hebrew symbols with their assigned numeric values (an ancient method known as gematria). However, a few ancient manuscripts of the Revelation say the number is 616, fifty less than the more well known numeral. A possible method to this problem lies in early translation. In the assumption that the Revelation was meant to be distributed among the Early Christians, it could very well be assumed that occasionally someone may have used the Latin spelling of Nero's name (Nero Caesar), so the total value of the gematria would be 616.^[43][44]

Whore of Babylon

This woman is associated with the Beast and refers to a counterfeit "bride" to the church.

Four Horsemen

When Jesus Christ opens the first four of the seven seals, riders appear on white, red, black, and pale-green horses. They symbolize pestilence, war, famine, and death, respectively.

Other characters

Other characters include the narrator (John), two witnesses who are killed (martyrs), the woman clothed with the sun, numerous angels, and the four strange creatures around the throne of God.

Outline

The following outline does not attempt to interpret Revelation, but presents the details of the book in the manner, and in the order, that they appear. Some words (e.g. "locusts") are placed in quotes to indicate that their description in the text does not match our normal conception of them. Each of the seven churches is listed with the opening words of the message to that church.

1. Introduction
   1. John identifies himself, his addressees, and the divine source of his visions. (1:1-3)
2. Messages to the Seven Asian Churches
   1. Description of the "Son of Man" as John sees him in his vision. (1:4-20)
   2. Ephesus: "I know your works, your labor, your patience, and that you cannot bear those who are evil." (2:1-7)
   3. Smyrna: "I know your works, tribulation, and poverty – but you are rich." (2:8-11)
   4. Pergamon: "I know your works, and where you live, where Satan's throne is." (2:12-17)
   5. Thyatira: "I know your works, love, service, faith, and your patience." (2:18-29)
   6. Sardis: "I know your works, that you have a name that you are alive, but you are dead." (3:1-6)
   7. Philadelphia: "I know your works. I have set before you an open door, and no one can shut it." (3:7-13)
   8. Laodicea: "I know your works, that you are neither cold nor hot... Because you are lukewarm, and neither cold nor hot, I will spew you out of my mouth." (3:14-22)
3. The Throne of God
   1. John comes before the throne of God. (4:1-3)
   2. John sees twenty-four elders and four "living creatures" praising God. (4:4-11)
   3. Only the "Lamb" is found worthy to take the judgment scroll from God and break the seals. (5:1-7)
   4. The creatures in heaven give praise. (5:8-14)
4. The Lamb Breaks the Seals
   1. First Seal: One who is both a king and a conqueror rides forth on a white horse. (6:1-2)
   2. Second Seal: A rider on a red horse brings war. (6:3-4)
   3. Third Seal: A rider on a black horse brings famine. (6:5-6)
   4. Fourth Seal: A rider on a pale horse brings death. (6:7-8)
   5. Fifth Seal: The souls of the martyrs "under the altar" cry out for vengeance. (6:9-11)
   6. Sixth Seal: There are earthquakes and natural disasters. (6:12-17)
      1. 144,000 of "all the tribes of Israel" are "sealed." (7:1-8)
      2. A vast multitude worship God after coming out of the Great Tribulation. (7:9-17)
   7. Seventh Seal: The breaking of the seventh seal begins another series: the seven trumpets. (8:1-5)
5. The Angels Sound the Trumpets
   1. First Trumpet: Hail and fire destroy a third of the trees and grass. (8:6-7)
   2. Second Trumpet: A third of the oceans are destroyed. (8:8-9)
   3. Third Trumpet: A third of the rivers and springs are poisoned. (8:10-11)
   4. Fourth Trumpet: A third of the sky is darkened. (8:12-13)
   5. Fifth Trumpet: A plague of "locusts" terrorize the Earth for five months. (9:1-12)
   6. Sixth Trumpet: An army of 200 million kills a third of Earth's population. (9:13-21)
      1. John eats a little book which is sweet in his mouth, but bitter in his stomach. (10:1-11)
      2. Two witnesses prophesy for 3½ years, are killed, and come back to life. (11:1-14)
   7. Seventh Trumpet: The ark of the covenant appears in the heavenly temple. (11:15-19)
      1. John sees a woman clothed with the sun, the moon, and the stars. (12:1-6)
      2. Satan is cast down to the Earth. (12:7-12)
      3. The dragon persecutes the people of God. (12:13-17)
      4. The beast from the sea makes war with the people of God. (13:1-10)
      5. The beast from the land forces people to worship the beast from the sea. (13:11-18)
      6. John sees 144,000, "having his Father's name written on their foreheads," with the Lamb on Mount Zion. (14:1-5)
      7. Three angels proclaim judgment. (14:6-13)
      8. The angels reap the harvest. (14:14-20)
6. The Angels Pour Out Their Bowls on the Earth
   1. Seven angels are given golden bowls containing of the wrath of God. (15:1-8)
   2. First Bowl: A "foul and loathsome sore" afflicts the followers of the beast. (16:1-2)
   3. Second Bowl: The sea turns to blood and everything within it dies. (16:3)
   4. Third Bowl: All fresh water turns to blood. (16:4-7)
   5. Fourth Bowl: The sun scorches the Earth with intense heat. (16:8-9)
   6. Fifth Bowl: There is total darkness and great pain in Antichrist's kingdom. (16:10-11)
   7. Sixth Bowl: Preparations are made for the final battle between the forces of good and evil. (16:12-16)
   8. Seventh Bowl: A great earthquake: "every island fled away and the mountains were not found." (16:17-21)
7. Babylon the Great
   1. The great harlot who sits on many waters: Babylon the Great. (17:1-18)
   2. Babylon is destroyed. (18:1-8)
   3. The people of the earth mourn Babylon's destruction. (18:9-19)
   4. The permanence of Babylon's destruction. (18:20-24)
8. The Marriage Supper of the Lamb
   1. A great multitude praises God. (19:1-6)
   2. The marriage supper of the Lamb. (19:7-10)
9. The Millennium
   1. The beast and the false prophet are cast into the lake of fire. (19:11-21)
   2. Satan is imprisoned in the bottomless pit for a thousand years. (20:1-3)
   3. The resurrected martyrs "and those who had not worshiped the beast or his image" live and reign with Christ for a thousand years. (20:4-6)
10. After the Thousand Years
    1. Satan is released and makes war against the people of God, but is defeated. (20:7-9)
    2. Satan is cast into the lake of fire. (20:10)
    3. The Last Judgment: the wicked, along with death and Hades, are cast into the lake of fire. (20:11-15)
11. The New Heaven and Earth
    1. A new heaven and new earth replace the old. There is no more suffering or death. (21:1-8)
    2. God comes to dwell with humanity in the New Jerusalem. (21:2-8)
    3. Description of the New Jerusalem. (21:9-27)
    4. The river and tree of life appear for the healing of the nations. The curse is ended. (22:1-5)
12. Conclusion
    1. Christ's reassurance that his coming is imminent. Final admonitions. (22:6-21)

Interpretations

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Key Terms • Abomination of Desolation • Armageddon • Four Horsemen • New Jerusalem • Rapture • Second Coming • Seven Seals • Tribulation • Two Witnesses • Antichrist • in Historicism • Son of Perdition • The Beast • in Preterism
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Revelation has a wide variety of interpretations, ranging from the simple message that we should have faith that God will prevail (symbolic interpretation), to complex end time scenarios (futurist interpretation),^[45][46] to the views of critics who deny any spiritual value to Revelation at all.^[47]

In the early Christian era, Christians generally understood the book to predict future events, especially an upcoming millennium of paradise on earth. In the late classical and medieval eras, the Church disavowed the millennium as a literal thousand-year kingdom. With the Protestant Reformation, opponents of Roman Catholicism adopted a historicist view, in which the predicted apocalypse is believed to be playing out in church history. A Jesuit scholar countered with preterism, the belief that Revelation predicted events that actually occurred as predicted in the first century. In the 19th century, futurism (belief that the predictions refer to future events) largely replaced historicism among conservative Protestants.

Religious views

Futurist view

The futurist view assigns all or most of the prophecy to the future, shortly before the second coming; especially when interpreted in conjunction with Daniel, Isaiah 2:11-22, 1 Thessalonians 4:15-5:11, and other eschatological sections of the Bible.

Futurist interpretations generally predict a resurrection of the dead and a rapture of the living, wherein all true Christians and those who have not reached an age of accountability are gathered to Christ at the time God's kingdom comes on earth. They also believe a tribulation will occur - a seven year period of time when believers will experience worldwide persecution and martyrdom, and be purified and strengthened by it. Futurists differ on when believers will be raptured, but there are three primary views: 1) before the tribulation; 2) near or at the midpoint of the tribulation; or 3) at the end of the tribulation. There is also a fourth view of multiple raptures throughout the tribulation, but this view does not have a mainstream following.

Pretribulationists believe that all Christians then alive will be taken up to meet Christ before the Tribulation begins. In this manner, Christians are "kept" from the Tribulation, such as Noah was removed before God judged the antediluvian world.

Midtribulationists believe that the rapture of the faithful will occur approximately halfway through the Tribulation, after it begins but before the worst part of it occurs. Some midtribulationists, particularly those holding to a "pre-wrath rapture" of the church, believe that God's wrath is poured out during a "Great Tribulation" that is limited to the last 3½ years of the Tribulation, after believers have been caught up to Christ.

Post-tribulationists believe that Christians will be gathered in the clouds with Christ and join him in his return to earth. (Pretribulationist Tim LaHaye admits a post-tribulation rapture is the closest of the three views to that held by the early church.)

All three views hold that Christians will return with Christ at the end of the Tribulation. Proponents of all three views also generally portray Israel as unwittingly signing a seven year peace treaty with the Antichrist, which initiates the seven year Tribulation. Many also tend to view the Antichrist as head of a revived Roman Empire, but the geographic location of this empire is unknown. Hal Lindsey suggests that this revived Roman Empire will be centered in western Europe, with Rome as its capital. Tim LaHaye promotes the belief that Babylon will be the capital of a worldwide empire. Joel Richardson and Walid Shoebat have both recently written books proposing a revived eastern Roman Empire, which will fall with the boundaries of the Ottoman Empire. (Istanbul also has seven hills, was a capital of the Roman Empire and is known as the Golden Horn - notable given the eschatological references to the "Little Horn"Daniel 7:8,8:9.)

There is also a variant futuristic view that the Tribulation can occur in any generation, meaning Satan always has an antichrist in the wings and there is always a nation-state that can become the revived Roman Empire. This variant view is developed by Angela Hunt in her fictional work, The Immortal.

The futurist view was first proposed by two Catholic writers, Manuel Lacunza and Ribera. Lacunza wrote under the pen name "Ben-Ezra", and his work was banned by the Catholic Church. It has grown in popularity in the 19th and 20th centuries, so that today it is probably most readily recognized. Books about the "rapture" by authors like Hal Lindsey, and the more recent Left Behind novels (by Jerry Jenkins and Tim LaHaye) and movies, have done much to popularize this school of thought.

The various views on tribulation are actually a subset of theological interpretations on the Millennium, mentioned in Revelation 20. There are three main interpretations: Premillennialism, Amillennialism, and Postmillennialism.

Premillennialism believes that Christ will return to the earth, bind Satan, and reign for a literal thousand years on earth with Jerusalem as his capital. Thus Christ returns before ("pre-") the thousand years mentioned in chapter 20. There are generally two subclasses of Premillennialism: Dispensational and Historic. Some form of premillennialism is thought to be the oldest millennial view in church history.^[48] Papias, believed to be a disciple of the Apostle John, was a premillenialist, according to Eusebius. Also Justin Martyr and Irenaeus expressed belief in premillennialism in their writings.

Amillennialism, the traditional view for Roman Catholicism, believes that the thousand years mentioned are not ("a-") a literal thousand years, but is figurative for what is now the church age, usually, the time between Christ's first ascension and second coming. This view is often associated with Augustine of Hippo. Amillennialists differ on the time frame of the millennium. Some say it started with Pentecost, others say it started with the fulfillment of Jesus' prophecy regarding the destruction of the temple in Jerusalem (70), and other starting points have also been proposed. Whether this eschatology is the result of caesaropapism, which may have also been the reason that premillennialism was condemned, is sharply disputed.

Postmillennialism believes that Christ will return after ("post-") a literal/figurative thousand years, in which the world will have essentially become a Christendom. This view was held by Jonathan Edwards.

Historicist view

Historicists hold that the events predicted in the Bible have been taking place in history. Historicism gained popularity with the Protestant Reformation. In the 19th century, with the rise of dispensationalism, conservative Protestants largely abandoned historicism in favor of futurism.

Adventists maintain an historicist interpretation of the Bible's predictions of the apocalypse.

The Rastafarians hold to a historicist view of the book of Revelation, relating it both to 20th-century events such as the crowning of Ethiopian Emperor Haile Selassie and the Second Italo-Ethiopian War, and also to future events such as the second coming of Selassie on the day of judgment.

Preterist view

Preterism holds that the contents of Revelation constitute a prophecy of events that were fulfilled in the first century.^[49] Preterism was first expounded by the Jesuit Luis De Alcasar during the Counter Reformation.^[50][51] The preterist view served to protect the Roman Catholic Church from attacks by Protestants,^[52][53] who identified the Pope with the Anti-Christ.

Preterist interpretations generally identify either Jerusalem or the Roman Empire as the persecutor of the Church, "Babylon", the "Mother of Harlots", etc. They see Armageddon as God's judgement on the Jews, carried out by the Roman army, which is identified as "the beast". It sees Revelation being fulfilled in 70, thereby bringing the full presence of God to dwell with all humanity. Some preterists see the second half of Revelation as changing focus to Rome, its persecution of Christians, and the fall of the Roman Empire.

Eastern Orthodox view

Eastern Orthodoxy treats the text as simultaneously describing contemporaneous events and as prophecy of events to come, for which the contemporaneous events were a form of foreshadow. It rejects attempts to determine, before the fact, if the events of Revelation are occurring by mapping them onto present-day events, taking to heart the Scriptural warning against those who proclaim "He is here!" prematurely. Instead, the book is seen as a warning to be spiritually and morally ready for the end times, whenever they may come ("as a thief in the night"), but they will come at the time of God's choosing, not something that can be precipitated nor trivially deduced by mortals.^[54] This view is also held by many Catholics, although there is a diversity of opinion about the nature of the Apocalypse within Catholicism.

Book of Revelation is the only book of the New Testament that is not read during services by the Eastern Orthodox Church. In the Coptic Orthodox Church (which is not in communion with the Eastern Orthodox church but is liturgically similar), the whole Book of Revelation is read during Apocalypse Night or Bright Saturday (the eve of the Resurrection).

Paschal liturgical view

This view, which has found expression among both Catholic and Protestant theologians, considers the liturgical worship, particularly the Easter rites, of early Christianity as background and context for understanding the Book of Revelation's structure and significance. This perspective is explained in The Paschal Liturgy and the Apocalypse (new edition, 2004) by Massey H. Shepherd, an Episcopal scholar, and in Scott Hahn's The Lamb's Supper: The Mass as Heaven on Earth (1999), in which he states that Revelation in form is structured after creation, fall, judgment and redemption. Those who hold this view say that the Temple's destruction (70 AD) had a profound effect on the Jewish people, not only in Jerusalem but among the Greek-speaking Jews of the Mediterranean.^[55] They believe The Book of Revelation provides insight into the early Eucharist, saying that it is the new Temple worship in the New Heaven and Earth. The idea of the Eucharist as a foretaste of the heavenly banquet is also explored by British Methodist Geoffrey Wainwright in his book Eucharist and Eschatology (Oxford University Press, 1980).

Esoteric view

The esoterist views Revelation as bearing multiple levels of meaning, the lowest being the literal or "dead-letter." Those who are instructed in esoteric knowledge enter gradually into more subtle levels of understanding of the text. They see the book as delivering both a series of warnings for humanity and a detailed account of internal, spiritual processes of the individual soul.

The Gnostic Kabbalist believes that Revelation (like Genesis) is a very profound book of Kabbalistic symbolism. This view is held by teachers such as H.P. Blavatsky, Eliphas Levi, Rudolf Steiner.

Christian Gnostics, however, are unlikely to be attracted to the teaching of Revelation because the doctrine of salvation through the sacrificed Lamb, which is central to Revelation, is repugnant to Gnostics. Christian Gnostics "believed in the Forgiveness of Sins, but in no vicarious sacrifice for sin ... they accepted Christ in the full realisation of the word; his life, not his death, was the key-note of their doctrine and their practice."^[56]

James Morgan Pryse was an esoteric gnostic who saw Revelation as a western version of the Hindu theory of the Chakra. He began his work, "The purpose of this book is to show that the Apocalypse is a manual of spiritual development and not, as conventionally interpreted, a cryptic history or prophecy".^[57] Such diverse theories have failed to command widespread acceptance. But Christopher Rowland argues: "there are always going to be loose threads which refuse to be woven into the fabric as a whole. The presence of the threads which stubbornly refuse to be incorporated into the neat tapestry of our world-view does not usually totally undermine that view."^[58]

Radical discipleship view

The radical discipleship view asserts that the Book of Revelation is best understood as a handbook for radical discipleship; i.e. how to remain faithful to the spirit and teachings of Jesus and avoid simply assimilating to surrounding society. In this view, the primary agenda of the book is to expose the worldly powers as impostors which seek to oppose the ways of God. The chief temptation for Christians in the first century, and today, is to fail to hold fast to the non-violent teachings and example of Jesus and instead be lured into unquestioning adoption and assimilation of worldly, national or cultural values - imperialism being the most dangerous and insidious. This perspective (closely related to liberation theology) draws on the approach of radical Bible scholars such as Ched Myers, William Stringfellow, Richard Horsley, Daniel Berrigan, Wes Howard-Brook,^[59] and Joerg Reiger.^[60]

Paschal spiritual view

There is also a perspective that holds that the book of Revelation describes a spiritual battle that took place while Jesus was on the cross and in the grave. Some Primitive Baptists believe this to be the intended meaning.

Aesthetic and literary views

Many literary writers and theorists have contributed to a wide range of views about the origins and purpose of the Book of Revelation. Some of these writers have no connection with established Christian faiths but, nevertheless, found in Revelation a source of inspiration. Revelation has been approached from Hindu philosophy and Jewish Midrash. Others have pointed to aspects of composition which have been ignored such as the similarities of prophetic inspiration to modern poetic inspiration, or the parallels with Greek drama. In recent years theories have arisen which concentrate upon how readers and texts interact to create meaning and are less interested in what the original author intended.

Charles Cutler Torrey taught semitic languages at Yale. His lasting contribution has been to show how much more meaningful prophets, such as the scribe of Revelation, are when treated as poets first and foremost. He felt this was a point often lost sight of because most English bibles render everything in prose.^[61] Poetry was also the reason John never directly quoted the older prophets. Had he done so, he would have had to use their (Hebrew) poetry whereas he wanted to write his own. Torrey insisted Revelation had originally been written in Aramaic.^[62] This was why the surviving Greek translation was written in such a strange idiom. It was a literal translation that had to comply with the warning at Revelation 22:18 that the text must not be corrupted in any way. According to Torrey, the story is that "The Fourth Gospel was brought to Ephesus by a Christian fugitive from Palestine soon after the middle of the first century. It was written in Aramaic." Later, the Ephesians claimed this fugitive had actually been the beloved disciple himself. Subsequently, this John was banished by Nero and died on Patmos after writing Revelation. Torrey argued that until 80 AD, when Christians were expelled from the synagogues,^[63] the Christian message was always first heard in the synagogue and, for cultural reasons, the evangelist would have spoken in Aramaic, else "he would have had no hearing."^[64] Torrey showed how the three major songs in Revelation (the new song, the song of Moses and the Lamb and the chorus at 19: 6-8) each fall naturally into four regular metrical lines plus a coda.^[65] Other dramatic moments in Revelation, such as 6: 16 where the terrified people cry out to be hidden, behave in a similar way.^[66]

Christina Rossetti was a Victorian poet who believed the sensual excitement of the natural world found its meaningful purpose in death and in God.^[67] Her The Face of the Deep is a meditation upon the Apocalypse. In her view, what Revelation has to teach is patience.^[68] Patience is the closest to perfection the human condition allows.^[69] Her book, which is largely written in prose, frequently breaks into poetry or jubilation, much like Revelation itself. The relevance of John's visions^[70] belongs to Christians of all times as a continuous present meditation. Such matters are eternal and outside of normal human reckoning. "That winter which will be the death of Time has no promise of termination. Winter that returns not to spring ... - who can bear it?"^[71] She dealt deftly with the vengeful aspects of John's message. "A few are charged to do judgment; everyone without exception is charged to show mercy."^[72] Her conclusion is that Christians should see John as "representative of all his brethren" so they should "hope as he hoped, love as he loved."^[73]

Recently, aesthetic and literary modes of interpretation have developed, which focus on Revelation as a work of art and imagination, viewing the imagery as symbolic depictions of timeless truths and the victory of good over evil. Elisabeth Schuessler Fiorenza wrote Revelation: Vision of a just world from the viewpoint of rhetoric.^[74] Accordingly, Revelation's meaning is partially determined by the way John goes about saying things, partially by the context in which readers receive the message and partially by its appeal to something beyond logic. It is Professor Schuessler Fiorenza's view that Revelation has particular relevance today as a liberating message to disadvantaged groups. John's book is a vision of a just world, not a vengeful threat of world-destruction. Her view that Revelation's message is not gender-based has caused dissent. She says we are to look behind the symbols rather than make a fetish out of them. Tina Pippin puts an opposing view:^[75] that John writes "horror literature" and "the misogyny which underlies the narrative is extreme". Professor Schuessler Fiorenza would seem to be saying John's book is more like science fiction; it does not foretell the future but uses present-day concepts to show how contemporary reality could be very different.

D. H. Lawrence took an opposing, pessimistic view of Revelation in the final book he wrote, Apocalypse.^[76] He saw the language which Revelation used as being bleak and destructive; a 'death-product'. Instead, he wanted to champion a public-spirited individualism (which he identified with the historical Jesus supplemented by an ill-defined cosmic consciousness) against its two natural enemies. One of these he called "the sovereignty of the intellect"^[77] which he saw in a technology-based totalitarian society. The other enemy he styled "vulgarity"^[78] and that was what he found in Revelation. "It is very nice if you are poor and not humble ... to bring your enemies down to utter destruction, while you yourself rise up to grandeur. And nowhere does this happen so splendiferously than in Revelation."^[79] His specific aesthetic objections to Revelation were that its imagery was unnatural and that phrases like "the wrath of the Lamb" were "ridiculous". He saw Revelation as comprising two discordant halves. In the first, there was a scheme of cosmic renewal "great Chaldean sky-spaces" which he quite liked. Then the book hinged around the birth of the baby messiah. After that, "flamboyant hate and simple lust ... for the end of the world." Lawrence coined the term "Patmossers" to describe those Christians who could only be happy in paradise if they knew their enemies were suffering hell.

Academic views

Modern biblical scholarship attempts to understand Revelation in its first century historical context within the genre of Jewish and Christian apocalyptic literature.

This approach considers the text as an address to seven historical communities in Asia Minor. Under this view, assertions that "the time is near" are to be taken literally by those communities. Consequently the work is viewed as a warning not to conform to contemporary Greco-Roman society which John "unveils" as beastly, demonic and subject to divine judgment. There is further information on these topics in the entries on higher criticism and apocalyptic literature.

The acceptance of Revelation into the canon is itself the result of a historical process, essentially no different from the career of other texts. The eventual exclusion of other contemporary apocalyptic literature from the canon may throw light on the unfolding historical processes of what was officially considered orthodox, what was heterodox, what was even heretical. Interpretation of meanings and imagery are anchored in what the historical author intended and what his contemporary audience inferred; a message to Christians not to assimilate into the Roman imperial culture was John's central message. Thus, his letter (written in the apocalyptic genre) is pastoral in nature, and the symbolism of Revelation is to be understood entirely within its historical, literary and social context. Critics study the conventions of apocalyptic literature and events of the first century to make sense of what the author may have intended.

During a discussion about Revelation on 23 August 2006, Pope Benedict XVI remarked: "The seer of Patmos, identified with the apostle, is granted a series of visions meant to reassure the Christians of Asia amid the persecutions and trials of the end of the first century."^[80]

Criticism

Nineteenth-century agnostic Robert G. Ingersoll branded Revelation "the insanest of all books".^[81] Thomas Jefferson omitted it along with most of the Biblical canon, from the Jefferson Bible, and wrote that at one time, he considered it as "merely the ravings of a maniac, no more worthy nor capable of explanation than the incoherences of our own nightly dreams."^[82] George Bernard Shaw described it as "a peculiar record of the visions of a drug addict".^[83]

Martin Luther changed his perspective on Revelation over time. In the preface to the German translation of Revelation that he composed in 1522, he said that he did not consider the book prophetic or apostolic, since "Christ is neither taught nor known in it." But in the completely new preface that he composed in 1530, he reversed his position and concluded that Christ was central to the book. He concluded, "As we see here in this book, that through and beyond all plagues, beasts, and evil angels, Christ is nonetheless with the saints and wins the final victory."^[84] John Calvin "had grave doubts about its value."^[85]

Old Testament origins

There is much in Revelation which harnesses ancient sources. Although the Old Testament provides the largest reservoir for such sources, it is not the only one. For example, Howard-Brook and Gwyther^[86] regard the Book of Enoch (1 Enoch) as an equally significant but contextually different source. "Enoch's journey has no close parallel in the Hebrew scriptures."

Until recently, academics showed little interest in this topic.^[87] But this was not the case with popular writers from non-conforming backgrounds. They liked to intersperse their text of Revelation with the prophecy they thought was being promised fulfilment. For example, an anonymous Scottish commentary of 1871^[88] prefaces Revelation 4 with the Little Apocalypse of Mark 13, places Malachi 4:5 (Behold I will send you Elijah the prophet before the coming of the great and dreadful day of the Lord) within Revelation 11, and writes Revelation 12:7 side-by-side with the role of 'the satan' in the Book of Job. The message is that everything in Revelation will happen in its previously appointed time.

Steve Moyise^[89] uses the index of the United Bible Societies' Greek New Testament to show that "Revelation contains more Old Testament allusions than any other New Testament book, but it does not record a single quotation." Perhaps significantly, Revelation chooses different sources than other New Testament books. Revelation concentrates on Isaiah, the Psalms and Ezekiel and neglects, comparatively speaking, the books of the Pentateuch which are the dominant sources for other New Testament writers. Methodological objections have been made to this way of proceeding. Each allusion may not have an equal significance. To counter this, G. K. Beale sought to develop a system that distinguished 'clear', 'probable' and 'possible' allusions. A clear allusion is one with almost the same wording as its source, the same general meaning and which could not reasonably have been drawn from elsewhere. A probable allusion contains an idea which is uniquely traceable to its source. Possible allusions are described as mere echoes of their putative sources.

Yet, with Revelation, the problems might be judged more fundamental than this. John seems to be using his sources in a completely different way to the originals. For example, John borrows the 'new temple' imagery of Ezekiel 40 to 48 but uses it to describe a New Jerusalem which, quite pointedly, no longer needs any temple at all because the new city is now God's own dwelling-place. Ian Boxall^[90] writes that Revelation "is no montage of biblical quotations (that is not John's way) but a wealth of allusions and evocations rewoven into something new and creative." In trying to identify this something new, he argues that Ezekiel provides the 'backbone' for Revelation. He sets out a comparative table listing the chapters of Revelation in sequence then identifying against most of them the structurally corresponding chapter in Ezekiel. The interesting point is that the order is not the same. John, on this theory, rearranges Ezekiel to suit his own purposes.

Some commentators argue that it is these purposes - and not the structure - that really matters. It is the view of G. K. Beale that, however much use John makes of Ezekiel, his ultimate purpose is to present Revelation as a fulfilment of Daniel 7.^[91]

See also

• Apocalypse
• Apocalypse of John - dated astronomically
• Apocalypse of Peter
• Apocalypse Revelation
• Apocalyptic literature
• Apocalypticism
• Arethas of Caesarea
• Book of Daniel
• Christian eschatological differences
• Christian Eschatology
• Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse
• Horae Apocalypticae
• New Earth
• Number of the Beast
• Second Coming
• Seven seals
• The Beast (Bible)
• The Two Witnesses of Apocalypse
• Textual variants in the Book of Revelation
• Whore of Babylon
• Woman of the Apocalypse

Notes

References

• Aune D.E., Revelation 6-16, WBC, t. 52B, Thomas Nelson Publishers, Nashville 1998.
• Bass, Ralph E., Jr. (2004) Back to the Future: A Study in the Book of Revelation Greenville, South Carolina: Living Hope Press, ISBN 0-9759547-0-9.
• Beale G.K., The Book of Revelation, NIGTC, Grand Rapids – Cambridge 1999. = ISBN 0-8028-2174-X
• Bousset W., Die Offenbarung Johannis, Göttingen 1896⁵, 1906⁶.
• Boxall, Ian, (2006) The Revelation of Saint John (Black's New Testament Commentary) London: Continuum, and Peabody, Massachusetts: Hendrickson. ISBN 0-8264-7135-8 U.S. edition: ISBN 1-56563-202-8
• Boxall, Ian (2002)Revelation: Vision and Insight - An Introduction to the Apocalypse London: SPCK ISBN 0-281-05362-6
• Brown, Raymond E. (1997-10-03). Introduction to the New Testament. Anchor Bible. ISBN 0-385-24767-2. 
• Ehrman, Bart D. (2004). The New Testament: A Historical Introduction to the Early Christian Writings. New York: Oxford. ISBN 0-19-515462-2. 
• Ford, J. Massyngberde (1975) Revelation, The Anchor Bible, New York: Doubleday ISBN 0-385-00895-3.
• Gentry, Kenneth L., Jr. (1998) Before Jerusalem Fell: Dating the Book of Revelation Powder Springs, Georgia: American Vision, ISBN 0-915815-43-5.
• Gentry, Kenneth L., Jr. (2002) The Beast of Revelation Powder Springs, Georgia: American Vision, ISBN 0-915815-41-9.
• Hernández, Juan, Scribal habits and theological influences in the Apocalypse, Tübingen 2006
• Hudson, Gary W. (2006) Revelation: Awakening The Christ Within, Vesica Press, ISBN 0-9778517-2-9
• Kiddle M., The Revelation of St. John (The Moffat New Testament Commentary), New York – London 1941.
• Kirsch, Thomas. A History of the End of the World: How the Most Controversial Book in the Bible Changed the Course of Western Civilization. New York: HarperOne, 2006.
• Lohmeyer E., Die Offenbarung des Johannes, Tübingen 1953.
• Mounce R. H., The Book of Revelation, Michigan 1977¹, 1998².
• Lodowicke Muggleton Works on the Book of Revelation London 2010 ISBN 978-1-907466-24-5
• Prigent P., L’Apocalypse, Paris 1981.
• Müller U.B., Die Offenbarung des Johannes, Güttersloh 1995.
• Roloff J., Die Offenbarung des Johannes, Zürich 1987².
• Samael Aun Weor (2004) [1960]. The Aquarian Message: Gnostic Kabbalah and Tarot in the Apocalypse of St. John. Thelema Press. ISBN 0-9745916-5-3. 
• Hahn, Scott (1999) The Lamb's Supper: Mass as Heaven on Earth, Darton, Longman, Todd, ISBN 0-232-52500-5
• Shepherd, Massey H. (2004) The Paschal Liturgy and the Apocalypse, James Clarke, ISBN 0-227-17005-9
• Stonehouse, Ned B., (c. 1929) The Apocalypse in the Ancient Church. A Study in the History of the New Testament Canon, n.d., Goes: Oosterbaan & Le Cointre. [Major discussion of the controversy surrounding the acceptance/rejection of Revelation into the New Testament canon.]
• Sweet, J. P. M., (1979, Updated 1990) Revelation, London: SCM Press, and Philadelphia: Trinity Press International. ISBN 0-334-02311-4.
• Wikenhauser A., Offenbarung des Johannes, Regensburg 1947, 1959.
• Witherington III, Ben, (2003) Revelation, The New Cambridge Bible Commentary, New York: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-00068-0.
• Zahn Th., Die Offenbarung des Johannes, t. 1-2, Leipzig 1924-1926.
• Francesco Vitali, Piccolo Dizionario dell'Apocalisse, TAU Editrice, Todi 2008

External links

• Early Christian Writings: Apocalypse of John: text, introduction, context
• "Revelation to John." Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
• Apocalypse, Book of - Article from the Catholic Encyclopedia
• Understanding the Book of Revelation - Article by L. Michael White from PBS Frontline program "Apocalypse!"
• Jewish Encyclopedia

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